Prefixes and suffixes in English

                      Prefixes and suffixes are sets of letters that are added to the beginning or end of another word. They are not words in their own right and cannot stand on their own in a sentence: if they are printed on their own they have a hyphen before or after them. 

Prefixes

                    Prefixes are added to the beginning of an existing word in order to create a new word with a different meaning. For example:

Word                prefix                       new word

Happy              Un-                          unhappy 

Cultural            multi                        multicultural

Work                over                       overwork

Space               cyber                     cyberspace

Market              super                     supermarket

Suffixes

                   Suffixes are added to the end of an existing word. For example: 

Word                suffix                    new word

Child                -ish                        childish

Work                -er                         worker

Taste                -less                       tasteless

idol                  -ize/-ise                    idolize/idolize

Like                -able                         likeable

                 The addition of a suffix often changes a word from one word class to another. In the table above, the verb like becomes the adjective likeable, the noun idol becomes the verb idolize, and the noun child becomes the adjective childish. 

Word creation with prefixes and suffixes

                 Some prefixes and suffixes are part of our living language, in that people regularly use them to create new words for modern products, concepts, or situations. For example: 

Word            prefix or suffix            new word

Security                bio-                    biosecurity

Clutter                  de-                    declutter

Media                  multi-                  multimedia

Email                   -er                      emailer

                Email is an example of a word that was itself formed from a new prefix, e-, which stands for electronic. This modern prefix has formed an ever-growing number of other Internet-related words, including e-book, e-cash, e-commerce, and e-tailer.

Phrases in English

             A phrase is a small group of words that forms a meaningful unit within a clause. There are several different types, as follows:

Noun phrase

A noun phrase is built around a single noun, for example:

A vase of roses stood on the table.

She was reading a book about the emancipation of women.

Verb phrase 

A verb phrase is the verbal part of a clause, for example:

She had been living in London.

I will be going to college next year. 

Adjective phrase 

An adjective phrase is built around an adjective, for example: 

He’s led a very interesting life.

A lot of the kids are really keen on football.

Adverbial phrase

An adverbial phrase is built round an adverb by adding words before and/or after it, for example:

The economy recovered very slowly.

They wanted to leave the country as fast as possible.

Prepositional phrase 

In a prepositional phrase the preposition always comes at the beginning, for example: 

I longed to live near the sea.

The dog was hiding under the kitchen table.

               Of course, we also use the word phrase to refer to a short group of words that have a particular meaning when they are used together, such as rain cats and dogs, play for time, or a square meal. This type of phrase is often referred to as an idiom.

Sentences in English language

                      A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense, contains a main verb, and begins with a capital letter. Sentences are used:

To make statements:

I took some money out of the bank.     The shop stays open until 9 p.m.

To ask questions or make requests:

Can I help you?   Could you open the door?

To give orders:

Stop arguing! Come here at once!

To express exclamations:

You’re driving too fast! It’s so cold!

Sentence or not?

                     The examples in the section above all show well-formed sentences. None of the following examples are proper sentences: 

‘Ham and eggs. And onions.’

Too much information!

‘Not at all, Joe.’

Which Rob shook

If it ever became public

                   The first three are not sentences because they do not contain a verb: they would be acceptable in informal speaking and writing, because they are easy to understand, but it's not a good idea to use such constructions in formal situations. 

                   The last two are not proper sentences because they do not contain a main verb or make sense on their own (they are in fact subordinate clauses). They need an additional clause so as to form a complete sentence and be understood.

Simple sentence 

                   A simple sentence normally contains one statement (known as a main clause). For example: 

The train should be here soon.

His father worked as a journalist.

Compound sentence 

                  A compound sentence contains two or more clauses of equal status (or main clauses), which are normally joined by a conjunction such as and or but. For example: 

Joe became bored with teaching              and        he looked for a new career.

[Main clause]                              [Conjunction]              [Main clause] 

Boxers can be very friendly dogs              but         they need to be trained.

[Main clause]                              [Conjunction]           [Main clause]

Complex sentence

               A complex sentence is also made up of clauses, but in this case the clauses are not equally balanced. They contain a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. For example: 

The story would make headlines              if it ever became public.

[Main clause]                                    [Subordinate clause]

He took up the project again      as soon as he felt well enough.

[Main clause]                                   [Subordinate clause]

Clauses in English language

                   A clause is a group of words that contains a verb (and usually other components too). A clause may form part of a sentence or it may be a complete sentence in itself. For example:

He was eating a bacon sandwich.

[Clause]

She had a long career     but she is remembered mainly for one early work.

[Clause]                                 [Clause]

Main clause

                   Every sentence contains at least one main clause. A main clause may form part of a compound sentence or a complex sentence, but it also makes sense on its own, as in this example:

He was eating a bacon sandwich.

[Main clause]

                 Compound sentences are made up of two or more main clauses linked by a conjunction such as and, but, or so, as in the following examples:

I love sport And I’m captain of the local football team.

[Main clause]      [Conjunction]              [Main clause]

She was born in Spain But Her mother is Polish.

[Main clause]   [Conjunction] [Main clause]   

 Subordinate clause

                   A subordinate clause depends on a main clause for its meaning. Together with a main clause, a subordinate clause forms part of a complex sentence. Here are two examples of sentences containing subordinate clauses: 

After we had had lunch 

.We went back to work.

[Subordinate clause]          [Main clause] 

I first saw her in Paris,

Where I lived in the early nineties.

[Main clause]               [Subordinate clause] 

There are two main types of subordinate clause: conditional clauses and relative clauses.

Conditional clause

                 A conditional clause is one that usually begins with if or unless and describes something that is possible or probable: 

If it looks like rain             a simple shelter can be made out of a plastic sheet

[Conditional clause]        [Main clause]

I'll be home tomorrow   unless the planes delayed for hours.

[Main clause]     [Conditional clause]

Relative clause 

              A relative clause is one connected to a main clause by a word such as which, that, whom, whose, when, where, or who: 

I first saw her in Paris,    where I lived in the early nineties.

[Main clause]     [Relative clause]

She wants to be with Thomas,   who is best suited to take care of her.

[Main clause]     [Relative clause]

I was wearing the dress                that I bought to wear to Jo's party.

 [Main clause]    [Relative clause]

Using relative clauses 

                Have you ever wondered about when to use that and when to use which or who in this type of sentence? In fact, for much of the time that is interchangeable with either of these words. For example:

√ you’re the only person who has ever listened to me.

√ you’re the only person that has ever listened to me.

√ it’s a film that should be seen by everyone.

√ it’s a film which should be seen by everyone

                  When referring to something, rather than someone, that tends to be the usual choice in everyday writing and conversation in British English. However, there is one main case when you should not use that to introduce a relative clause. This is related to the fact that there are two types of relative clause: a restrictive relative clause and a non-restrictive relative clause.

Restrictive relative clause

              A restrictive relative clause (also known as a defining relative clause) gives essential information about a noun that comes before it: without this clause the sentence wouldn’t make much sense. A restrictive relative clause can be introduced by that, which, whose, who, or whom. You should not place a comma in front of a restrictive relative clause:

√ She held out the hand               which was hurt.

√ she held out the hand                that was hurt.

[Main clause]     [Restrictive relative clause]

You can also leave out that or which in some restrictive relative clauses:

√ It reminded him of the house that he used to rent in Oxford.

√ It reminded him of the house which he used to rent in Oxford.

√ It reminded him of the house he used to rent in Oxford.

[Main clause]     [Restrictive relative clause]

Non-restrictive relative clause

              A non-restrictive relative clause (also called a non-defining relative clause) provides extra information that could be left out without affecting the meaning or structure of the sentence. Non-restrictive relative clauses are normally introduced by which, whose, who, or whom, but never by that. You should place a comma in front of them:

She held out her hand,  which Rob shook.

[Main clause]     [Non-restrictive relative clause]

If a non-restrictive relative clause is in the middle of a sentence, you should put commas before and after it:

 Bill,         who had fallen asleep on the sofa,          suddenly roused himself.

                [Non-restrictive relative clause]                

Foreign words and phrases in English language

Over the centuries the English language has assimilated words and phrases from a variety of other languages. In context, those listed here are often printed in italics.

Foreign words and phrases in English language

Over the centuries the English language has assimilated words and phrases from a variety of other languages. In context, those listed here are often printed in italics.

ab initio                Latin from the beginning

a cappella            Italian sung without instrumental accompaniment (literally ‘in chapel style’)

à deux                 French for or involving two people

ad hoc                  Latin made or done for a particular purpose (literally ‘to this’)

ad infinitum          Latin endlessly; forever (literally ‘to infinity’)

ad interim             Latin for the meantime

ad nauseam            Latin to a tiresomely excessive degree (literally ‘to sickness’)

a fortiori                 Latin more conclusively (literally ‘from a stronger [argument]’)

agent provocateur          French a person who tempts a suspected criminal to commit a crime so that they can be caught and convicted (literally ‘provocative agent’)

à huis clos            French in private (literally ‘with closed doors’)

al dente               Italian (of food) cooked so as to be still firm when bitten (literally ‘to the tooth’)

alfresco                Italian in the open air (literally ‘in the fresh’)

amour propre        French self-respect (literally ‘own love’)

annus mirabilis      Latin a remarkable or auspicious year

a posteriori           Latin based on reasoning from known facts or past events rather than on assumptions or predictions (literally ‘from what comes after’)

a priori                   Latin based on deduction rather than experience (literally ‘from what is before’)

au courant               French well informed; up to date (literally ‘in the (regular) course’)

au fait                     French having a good or detailed knowledge (literally ‘to the point’)

au fond                    French basically; in essence (literally ‘at the bottom’)

au naturel           French in the most simple or natural way

beau geste         French a noble and generous act (literally ‘fine gesture’)

beau idéal           French the highest standard of excellence (literally ‘ideal beauty’)

beau monde         French fashionable society (literally ‘fine world’)

beaux arts           French the fine arts

bête noire           French a person or thing one particularly dislikes (literally ‘black beast’)

belles-lettres       French literary works written and read for their elegant style (literally ‘fine letters’)

billet-doux          French a love letter (literally ‘sweet note’)

blitzkrieg              German an intense, violent military campaign intended to bring about a swift victory (literally ‘lightning war’)

bona fide             Latin genuine; real (literally ‘with good faith’)

bon mot               French a clever or witty remark (literally ‘good word’)

bon vivant           French a person with a sociable and luxurious lifestyle (literally ‘person living well’)

brasserie             French an informal or inexpensive restaurant (literally ‘brewery’)

carpe diem         Latin make the most of the present time (literally ‘seize the day!’)

carte blanche                   French complete freedom to act as one wishes (literally ‘blank paper’)

cause célèbre                   French a controversial issue attracting much public attention (literally ‘famous case’)

caveat emptor                  Latin the buyer is responsible for checking the quality of goods before purchasing them (literally ‘let the buyer beware’)

c’est la guerre                      French used as an expression of resigned acceptance (literally ‘that's war’)

chacun à son gout                 French everyone to their own taste

chef-d’œuvre                      French a masterpiece (literally ‘chief work’)

cherchez la femme             French there is certain to be a woman at the bottom of a problem or mystery (literally ‘look for the woman’)

comme il faut                     French correct in behaviour or etiquette (literally ‘as is necessary’)

compos mentis                   Latin sane; in full control of one's mind

cognoscenti                      Italian people who are well informed about something (literally ‘people who know’)

cordon sanitaire               French a guarded line placed around an area infected by disease to prevent anyone from leaving (literally ‘sanitary line’)

Cosa Nostra                    Italian a US criminal organization related to the Mafia (literally ‘our thing’)

coup de foudr                 e French love at first sight (literally ‘stroke of lightning’)

coup de grâce                  French a blow by which a mortally wounded person or thing is mercifully killed (literally ‘stroke of grace’)

coup de main        French a sudden surprise attack (literally ‘stroke of hand’)

coup d’état             French a sudden violent seizure of power (literally ‘blow of state’)

cri de cœur             French a passionate appeal or protest (literally ‘cry from the heart’)

cui bono?                 Latin who stands to gain? (implying that whoever does may have been responsible for a crime; literally ‘to whom (is it) a benefit?’)

de facto                    Latin in fact, whether by right or not

Dei gratia                Latin by the grace of God

déjà vu                   French the sense of having experienced the present situation before (literally ‘already seen’)

dejure                          Latin rightful; by right (literally ‘of law’)

de nos jours                 French contemporary (literally ‘of our days’)

Deo gratias                 Latin thanks be to God

Deo volente                Latin God willing

de profundis                Latin expressing one's deepest feelings (literally ‘from the depths’)

de rigueur                    French obligatory; required by etiquette or current fashion (literally ‘of strictness’)

dernier cri                     French the very latest fashion (literally ‘the last cry’)

de trop                            French not wanted; superfluous (literally ‘excessive’)

deus ex machina              Latin an unexpected event that saves an apparently hopeless situation (literally ‘god from the machinery’)

dolce far niente                Italian pleasant idleness (literally ‘sweet doing nothing’)

dolce vita                         Italian a life of pleasure and luxury (literally ‘sweet life’)

doppelgänger                    German an apparition or double of a living person (literally ‘double-goer’)

double entendre                French a word or phrase with two possible interpretations (from obsolete French, ‘double understanding’)

dramatis personae            Latin the characters in a play (literally ‘persons of the drama’)

embarras de richesse       French more options or resources than one knows what to do with (literally ‘embarrassment of riches’)

éminence grise                 French a person who has power or influence without holding an official position (literally ‘grey eminence’)

en famille                       French with one's family; in an informal way (literally ‘in family’)

enfant terrible                French a person whose behaviour is unconventional or controversial (literally ‘terrible child’)

en masse                        French all together (literally ‘in a mass’)

en passant                      French by the way (literally ‘in passing’)

entente cordiale              French a friendly understanding between states

entre nous                      French between ourselves

esprit de corps               French a feeling of pride and loyalty uniting the members of a group (literally ‘spirit of body’)

ex gratia                       Latin (of payment) given as a favour rather than because of any legal obligation (literally ‘from favour’)

ex officio                       Latin by virtue of one's position or status (literally ‘out of duty’)

fait accompli                 French a thing that has been done or decided and cannot now be altered (literally ‘accomplished fact’)

faute de mieux               French for want of a better alternative

faux pas                         French an embarrassing blunder or indiscretion (literally ‘false step’)

femme fatale                   French a seductive woman (literally ‘disastrous woman’)

fête champêtre                French an outdoor entertainment; a garden party (literally ‘rural festival’)

fin de siècle                    French relating to the end of a century

force majeure                 French superior strength

folie de grandeur             French delusions of grandeur

gîte                                    French a small furnished holiday house in France

grande dame                    French a woman who is influential within a particular sphere (literally ‘grand lady’)

haute couture                  French the designing and making of clothes by leading fashion houses (literally ‘high dressmaking’)

haute cuisine                   French high-quality cooking (literally ‘high cookery’)

haut monde                      French fashionable society (literally ‘high world’)

hors de combat                French out of action due to injury or damage (literally ‘out of the fight’)

ideé fixe                          French an obsession (literally ‘fixed idea’)

in absentia                      Latin while not present (literally ‘in absence’)

in camera                       Latin in private (literally ‘in the chamber’)

in extremis                     Latin in an extremely difficult situation; at the point of death

in loco parentis              Latin in the place of a parent

in medias res                   Latin in or into the middle of things

in propria persona           Latin: in his or her own person

in situ                               Latin in the original or appropriate position

inter alia                           Latin among other things

in toto                               Latin as a whole

ipso facto                          Latin by that very fact or act

je ne sais quoi                   French a quality that is hard to describe (literally ‘I do not know what’)

jeu d’esprit                       French a light-hearted display of wit (literally ‘game of the mind’)

jeunesse dorée                   French wealthy, fashionable young people (literally ‘gilded youth’)

joie de vivre                     French exuberant enjoyment of life (literally ‘joy of living’)

katzenjammer                   German a hangover or a severe headache accompanying a hangover (literally ‘cats’ wailing’)

laissez-faire                      French a non-interventionist policy (literally ‘allow to do’)

locum tenens                      Latin a temporary deputy or stand-in (literally ‘one holding a place’)

locus classicus                  Latin the best known or most authoritative passage on a subject (literally ‘classical place’)

magnum opus                        Latin the most important work of an artist, writer, etc. (literally ‘great work’)

manqué                                     French having failed to become what one might have been (from manquer ‘to lack’)

mea culpa                                  Latin an acknowledgement that something is one's fault (literally ‘by my fault’)

memento mori                           Latin something kept as a reminder that death is inevitable (literally ‘remember (that you have) to die’)

ménage à trois                            French an arrangement in which a married couple and the lover of one of them live together (literally ‘household of three’)

modus operandi                         Latin a way of doing something (literally ‘way of operating’)

modus vivendi                           Latin an arrangement that allows conflicting parties to coexist peacefully (literally ‘way of living’)

mot juste                                      French the most appropriate word or expression

ne plus ultra                                Latin the best example of something (literally ‘not further beyond’)

nil desperandum                          Latin do not despair

noblesse oblige                           French privilege entails responsibility

nolens volens                              Latin whether one wants or likes something or not (literally ‘not willing, willing’)

non sequitur                                 Latin a conclusion or statement that does not logically follow from the previous statement (literally ‘it does not follow’)

nouveau riche                                French people who have recently become rich and who display their wealth ostentatiously (literally ‘new rich’)

objet d’art                                      French a small decorative or artistic object

on dit                                              French a piece of gossip (literally ‘they say’)

papabile                                          Italian worthy or eligible to be elected pope

par excellence                                French better or more than all others of the same kind (literally ‘by excellence’)

parti pris                                         French a preconceived view; a bias (literally ‘side taken’)

per annum                                       Latin for each year

per capita                                       Latin for each person (literally ‘by heads’)

per se                                             Latin by or in itself or themselves

persona non grata                           Latin a person who is not welcome somewhere

pièce de résistance                         French the most important or impressive item (literally ‘piece (i.e. means) of resistance’)

pied-à-terre                                     French a small flat or house kept for occasional use (literally ‘foot to earth’)

pis aller                                           French a last resort (literally ‘worse to go’)

plat du jour                                      French a special dish prepared by a restaurant on a particular day (literally ‘dish of the day’)

plus ça change                                  French used to express resigned acknowledgement of the fact that certain things never change (from plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose ‘the more it changes, the more it stays the same’)

pococurante                                     Italian careless or nonchalant (literally ‘little caring’)

prima facie                                      Latin accepted as so until proved otherwise (literally ‘at first face’)

primus inter pares                            Latin the senior or representative member of a group (literally ‘first among equals’)

pro rata                                            Latin proportional; proportionally (literally ‘according to the rate’)

proxime accessit                             Latin the person who comes second in an examination or is runner-up for an award (literally ‘came very near’)

quid pro quo                                   Latin a favour or advantage given in return for something (literally ‘something for something’)

raison d’être                                   French the most important reason for someone or something's existence (literally ‘reason for being’)

reductio ad absurdum                        Latin a method of disproving a premise by showing that its logical conclusion is absurd (literally ‘reduction to the absurd’)

roman-à-clef                                     French a novel in which real people or events appear with invented names (literally ‘novel with a key’)

sangfroid                                          French the ability to stay calm in difficult circumstances (literally ‘cold blood’) 

savoir faire                                      French the ability to act appropriately in social situations (literally ‘know how to do’)

sine die                                             Latin (of proceedings) adjourned indefinitely (literally ‘without a day’)

sine qua non                                     Latin a thing that is absolutely essential (literally ‘without which not’)

soi-disant                                        French self-styled; so-called (literally ‘self-saying’)

sotto voce                                       Italian in a quiet voice (literally ‘under voice’)

sub judice                                      Latin being considered by a court of law and therefore not to be publicly discussed elsewhere (literally ‘under a judge’)

sub rosa                                       Latin happening or done in secret (literally ‘under the rose’)

sui generis                                   Latin unique (literally ‘of its own kind’)

table d’hôte                                 French a restaurant meal offered at a fixed price, with few if any choices (literally ‘host's table’)

tant mieux                                    French so much the better

tant pis                                       French so much the worse; too bad

terra firma                                  Latin dry land; the ground (literally ‘firm land’)

terra incognita                            Latin unknown territory

tête-à-tête                                   French a private conversation (literally ‘head-to-head’)

tour de force                              French a thing accomplished with great skill (literally ‘feat of strength’)

tout de suite                               French at once (literally ‘quite in sequence’)

unheimlich                                German uncanny or weird

verboten                                   German forbidden

via media                                 Latin a compromise (literally ‘middle way’)

victor ludorum                         Latin the overall champion in a sports competition (literally ‘victor of the games’)

vis-à-vis                French in relation to; as compared with (literally ‘face-to-face’)

vox populi             Latin public opinion (literally ‘the voice of the people’)

Zeitgeist                German the characteristic spirit or mood of a particular historical period (literally ‘time spirit’)

Three-letter words containing x or z in English language

axe	a chopping tool
biz	business
box	a container
coz	archaic a cousin
cox	the person who steers a rowing boat
dux	Scottish a top pupil at school
dzo	a crossbreed of a cow and a yak
fax	an electronic copy of a document
fez	a type of hat
fix	to attach or repair
fox	an animal
hex	N. Amer. to cast a spell on someone
kex	cow parsley
lax	not strict or careful enough
lox	N. Amer. smoked salmon
lux	a unit of illumination
max	maximum
Mex	Mexican
mix	to blend or combine
nix	nothing
pax	a call for a truce
pix	pictures
pox	a disease
pyx	a container for Communion bread
Rex	the reigning king
sax	a saxophone
saz	a kind of lute
sex	being male or female
six	the number
tax	money paid to a government
tux	a tuxedo
Uzi	a type of sub-machine gun
vex	to annoy
vox	vocals; voice
wax	substance used to make candles etc.
wiz	= whizz
zag	a sharp change of direction
zap	to destroy
zed	the letter Z
zee	N. Amer. the letter Z
Zen	a type of Buddhism
zig	a sharp change of direction
zip	a fastener
zit	a spot
zol	S. African a hand-rolled cigarette
zoo	a place where wild animals are kept